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INTRODUCTION
In the world today, non-communicable diseases are the leading cause of death. Hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases are responsible for the disease burden in the world (Afshari et al., 2021; Nahimana et al., 2017; Nascimento et al., 2017). Hypertension has been identified as the major risk factor for the development of other cardiovascular diseases and kidney problems (Simo et al., 2020; Afshari et al., 2021). For example, research has shown that high blood pressure has been attributed to about 41% of cardiovascular mortality deaths and up to 51% of deaths from stroke. It has been estimated that up to 1.5 billion people will become hypertensive by 2025, as about one billion have the disease currently (Afsargharehbagh et al., 2019; Afshari et al., 2021).
Among women, deaths from hypertension are greater when compared to other cardiovascular diseases. To illustrate, a study among the Tabari population showed that 24.9% of women were hypertensive whereas that of their men was 18.3% (Afshari et al., 2021). Another study in Iran discovered that the prevalence of hypertension was greater among women when compared to their men (Afsargharehbagh et al., 2019; Kheradmand et al., 2019; Afshari et al., 2021). This issue has raised concerns that motivated scientists and researchers to dig deep in order to discover the solution to the problem (Momeni et al., 2019). Therefore, studies have shown that the use of oral contraceptive pills by women is one of the major reasons for the high prevalence of hypertension among women than men (Momeni et al., 2019).
In addition, studies have suggested that the use of oral contraceptive pills for about two years greatly increases the chances of becoming hypertensive among women (Afshari et al., 2021). The use of contraceptives has become more popular as the world develops because of its advantages. Some of the advantages include family planning (birth spacing), prevention of unwanted pregnancies, prevention of abortions, prevention of sexually transmitted diseases (use of condoms), population control, economic benefits, among others (Afshari et al., 2021).
The mechanism in which oral contraceptive pills induce hypertension is because of the presence of estrogen and progesterone receptors in the blood vessels (Ribeiro et al., 2018). For example, combined hormonal contraceptives contain ethinylestradiol that induces changes in blood pressure thereby affecting both systolic and diastolic blood pressures Ribeiro et al., 2018. This estradiol enhances the production of hepatic angiotensinogen, which activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that increases blood pressure (Ribeiro et al., 2018).
Oral contraceptive pills are widely used by many among the several types of contraception (Liu et al., 2017). Some of the reasons for its increased usage could be attributed to its roles such as lower adverse effect, effectiveness, reversibility, cheaper and affordable, its cations in ameliorating the risks associated with dysmenorrhea, endometrial and ovarian cancers, and ovarian cysts (Afshari et al., 2021). However, oral contraception exacerbates the risks of obesity (steroid content), depression, vomiting, and anxiety (Afshari et al., 2021).
Studies have shown that the use of oral contraceptives has been attributed to being associated with the risk of developing hypertension. For example, an Iranian study saw that use of oral contraceptives by women increased the risk of developing hypertension (Afshari et al., 2021). Other studies have supported the same view (Momeni et al., 2019; Park & Kim, 2013). Apart from hypertension that has been reported to be associated with oral contraceptive use, some other studies have reported oral contraceptive use is also associated with the development of cancer (Liu et al., 2017). However, there exist lots of controversy over the role of contraceptive in the development of hypertension and other diseases (Liu et al., 2017). Therefore, it is important to study the effect of contraceptive methods on hypertension among women.
AIM
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH PROBLEM
Hypertension has been identified as the major risk factor for the development of other cardiovascular diseases and kidney problems (Simo et al., 2020; Afshari et al., 2021). Several studies have discovered that the prevalence of hypertension was greater among women when compared to their men (Afsargharehbagh et al., 2019; Kheradmand et al., 2019; Afshari et al., 2021). Therefore, studies have shown that the use of oral contraceptive pills by women is one of the major reasons for the high prevalence of hypertension among women than men (Momeni et al., 2019). Thus, it is important to investigate the effect of contraceptive methods on hypertension.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
There exist controversies over the effect of contraceptive methods and hypertension. Some studies have shown that the use of oral contraceptives by women increased the risk of developing hypertension (Afshari et al., 2021). Other studies have supported the same view (Momeni et al., 2019; Park & Kim, 2013). However, there exist lots of controversy over the role of contraceptive in the development of hypertension and other diseases (Liu et al., 2017). To close the gap in knowledge, this present study will study the effect of contraceptive methods on hypertension.
METHODOLOGY
ANALYSISThe following will be used for analysis in this review, they are; cluster analysis (CA) and/or factor analysis (FA), and/or principal component analysis (PCA). The results will be presented as odds ratios (OR).
RISK ASSESSMENT
The risk assessment conducted for this project is provided in the table below:
Table 1: Risk assessment
Risk
Impact
Mitigation Plan
Inability to meet the deadline
Low
Get an extension from the supervisor in due time
Inability to get required process inputs, skill, and manpower
Moderate
Refer to municipalities and research institutes for help
Inability to properly develop the process set up
High
Refer to your supervisor for help
Insufficient data
Refer to journals and textbooks for help
SCHEDULE
Table 2: Project Plan
Task Name
Start Date
End Date
Duration (Days)
Initial Research
15/01/2022
29/01/2022
14
Proposal
06/02/2022
21
Introduction Chapter
18/03/2022
23/03/2022
5
Literature Review Chapter
20/04/2022
24
Methodology Chapter
02/05/2022
12
Presentation 1
02/07/2022
10/07/2022
8
Analysis
24/07/2022
Evaluation of Gotten Results
01/08/2022
7
Discussion Chapter
11/08/2022
10
Evaluation Chapter
16/08/2022
Conclusion Chapter
18/08/2022
2
Project Management Chapter
20/08/2022
Abstract and Report compilation
22/08/2022
Report Proofreading
01/09/2022
Presentation 2
11/09/2022
REFERENCES
Afshari, M., Alizadeh-Navaei, R., & Moosazadeh, M. (2021). Oral contraceptives and hypertension in women: results of the enrolment phase of Tabari Cohort Study. BMC Women’s Health, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01376-4
Afsargharehbagh, R., Rezaie-Keikhaie, K., Rafiemanesh, H., Balouchi, A., Bouya, S. and Dehghan, B. (2019) Hypertension and pre-hypertension among Iranian adults population: a meta-analysis of prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control. Curr Hypertens Rep. 21(4):27.
Kheradmand, M., Moosazadeh, M., Saeedi, M., Poustchi, H., Eghtesad, S. and Esmaeili, R. (2019). Tabari Cohort profile and preliminary results in urban areas and mountainous regions of Mazandaran, Iran. Arch Iran Med. 22(6):279–85.
Liu, H., Yao, J., Wang, W., & Zhang, D. (2017). Association between duration of oral contraceptive use and risk of hypertension: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Hypertension, 19(10), 1032–1041. https://doi.org/10.1111/jch.13042
Momeni, Z., Dehghani, A., Fallahzadeh, H., Koohgardi, M., Dafei, M., & Mohammadi, M. (2019). Effects of low-dose contraceptive pills on the risk factors of cardiovascular diseases among 15-35-year-old women: A retrospective cohort. International Journal of Reproductive BioMedicine, 17(11), 841–850. https://doi.org/10.18502/ijrm.v17i10.5496
Nahimana, M.R., Nyandwi, A, Muhimpundu, M.A, Olu, O., Condo, J.U. and Rusanganwa,
A. (2017). A population-based national estimate of the prevalence and risk factors associated with hypertension in Rwanda: implications for prevention and control. BMC Public Health. 18(1):2.
Nascimento, B.R., Brant, L.C.C., Yadgir, S., Oliveira, G.M.M., Roth, G. and Glenn, S.D. (2020) Trends in prevalence, mortality, and morbidity associated with high systolic blood pressure in Brazil from 1990 to 2017: estimates from the “Global Burden of Disease 2017” (GBD 2017) study. Popul Health Metr. 18(Suppl 1):17.
Park, H., & Kim, K. (2013). Associations between oral contraceptive use and risks of hypertension and prehypertension in a cross-sectional study of Korean women. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/13/39
Ribeiro, C. C. M., Shimo, A. K. K., Lopes, M. H. B. de M., & Lamas, J. L. T. (2018). Effects of different hormonal contraceptives in women’s blood pressure values. In Revista brasileira de enfermagem (Vol. 71, pp. 1453–1459). https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2017-0317
Simo, L.P, Agbor, V.N.,..Noubiap, J.J.N. (2020) Hypertension prevalence, associated factors, treatment and control in rural Cameroon: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 10: e040981.
Last updated: Feb 02, 2022 08:43 AM
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